Language

CONTENTS:

*MEANING OF LANGUAGE

*INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

*DEFNITION

*STRUCTURE

*LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION

*SPEECH PERCEPTION

*SENTENCE COMPREHENSION

*AMBIGUITY

*COMPREHENDING TEXT PASSAGES

*LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

*GRAMMATICAL ENCODING

*PHONOLOGICAL ENCODING

*SPEECH ERRORS IN PRODUCTION

*CURRENT RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE

MEANING OF LANGUAGE:-

               In psychological or scientific manner language seen the meaning” language connected to cognition like memory, perception. Then language seems to be a crucial cognitive ability. Often language used to be a communication system.

            As an object of linguistic study” language is an abstract concept”.

        The word language derives ultimately from indo European which means” tongue, speech”. The Latin word lingua means ‘language, tongue’.

         In recent research language means” knowledge on perception of speech sounds”. Including guiding perceptual learning and delaying recognition of context-inappropriate stimuli (mirman, mcclelled and holt-2010).

Introduction: history of language:

The long absence of the term cognition in languages seems interesting in view of the well established term’ cognitive linguistic ‘and merits some security. For the early mentalists the contents of cognition, variously called’ knowledge, ideas, thoughts and so on, seemed under determined.

    For Saussure (1996-1916; 333) thought was only a shapeless and indistinct mass’ an indefinite plane of jumbled ideas’. For hjemslev (1969-1943; 52) it was an analyzed entity, an amorphous thought mass. Next thought becomes in the process of its decomposition’. As language takes shape and enables clear cut consistent distinction between two ideas; linguistic form lays arbitrary boundaries on a purport continum’.that depend exclusively  on this structure’.(hijemslev).

Behaviorist’s language in contrast, the contents of cognition seemed over determined notation that ‘mental images, feelings, thoughts, concepts; and ideas’, are merely popular names for various bodily movements. (Bloom field-1933-142).For bloom field, the meaning of language is not a mental event but the situation in which the speaker utters it and the responses which it calls fourth in the hearer, then he wondered if” the situations which prompt people utter speech include every object and happening in this universe (1933-142-139).If so the study of speakers situations and hearers responses must be equivalent to the some total of all human knowledge.

    In 1998 ‘demurs explains that “all human language are communication system but not all communication system have the prerequisites to be classified as natural language “.

                Skinner suggested that behaviorist principle such as” operant conditioning could explain how children learned language. The linguist   NOAM CHOMSKY (1959) strongly criticized the behaviorist approach to language. By any chain of association.

DEFNITION OF LANGUAGE:

       “A Language is a communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbiter’s signals such as voice, gestures, perception, speech or written words”.

STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE:

*Different languages have different sounds known as PHONEMES.

*The study of the way in which phonemes can be combined in any given language constitutes THE STUDY OF PHONEMES.

* Identify the meaningful units of language, an aspect known as MORPHOLOGY.

* Some of the morphemes are words and also need to identify we called it MORPHEMES.

* The set of rules in a language is GRAMMER.

* The term COMPETENCE refers to the underlying linguistic knowledge that lets people produce and comprehend their language.

* The study of systematic ways in which speech sounds are combined and altered in language is known as PHONOLOGY.

* The term SYNTAX refers to the arrangement of words with in the sentences or more broadly to the structure of the sentences their parts and the way the parts are put together (chomskey-1957).

* The study of meaning is known as SEMATICS.

LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION

Like other information language must be transformed from raw into meaningful represention.one of the first stages of this transformation is perceptual.

Language comprehension and production involves with,

·         SPEECH PERCEPTION

·         AMBIGUITY

·         SENTENCE COMPREHENSION

·         COMREHENDING TEXT PASSAGES 

·         PROCESS OF LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

·         ERRORS IN PRODUCTION

·          

SPEECH PERCEPTION:

     We perceive speech in the way of written texts. One sound at a time, uses the pauses between sounds, to identify letters and the pauses between words to identify when one word ends and another begins.

      George miller (1990) described two problems in speech perception .First speech is continuous .Rarely are there pauses around sound; different word from the same word blend into each other. This problem is clearly identified by using spectrogram. A SECOND PROBLEM IN SPEECH PERCEPTION IS THAT A SINGLE PHONEME SOUNDS DIFFERENT DEPENDING ON CONTEXT.

Speech perception is demonstrated with other two experiment (1) visual information in the perception of speech by MASSARO AND COHEN (1983).

(2)Gesture and hearer phonemes by(warren and obuset-1970-1971)

SENTENCE COMPREHENSION:

HOW DO PEOPLE UNDERSTAND ORE RECOVER MEANING OF SENTENCES?

       In a series of studies Jarvella (1971) had people listen long passages of speech. Interruptions during the passages were cues to the participants to recall as preciously as possible, whatever they could form the sentences just heard. Jarvella created passages that contained identical phrases. Except that phrases belonged to the different casual constituents.

        Considering the studies on people, when finishes processing a sentence3.they discard the exact wording and store only a representation of its gist (sachs-1967).people ordinarily rely function of a word or a phrase in a sentence. Although people might never consciously think about the function of a word or a phrase in a sentence.

Sentence comprehension normally occurs with left-to-right processing, with each word normally processed once and normally one interruption assigned. Processing result in each sentence being assigned a “logical structure”. So that reader knows the role of each word in the sentence and how to sentence fits with preceding sentence.

AMBIGUITY:

                   Comprehension is a complex business. Part of the reason is that most of the relationships among sounds, meaning and spelling are arbitrary. .language that contributes to the difficulty of relating different levels of linguistic representation is ambiguity.

        Language carries a huge amount of ambiguity at every level and the ambiguities at of these level have to be resolved before we can understand the meaning of what someone i9s saying . In first level how we use nouns and verbs around us .That means the objects with names that seem to have only one clear meaning. Language comprehension is naturally so fast and accurate that it is often very hard to gain insight if direct observation.

          A common theme running through all the research on ambiguity resolution is BOTTOM-UP and TOP-DOWN information. Bottom-up information moves from spelling and sound information. Top-down information comes from information in long term memories of each of us that help us interrupt that we perceive.

COMPREHENDING TEXT PASSEGES

   One question we can ask is how processing as individual sentences works when they are blended together into passages, such as paragraph or stories.

   Van den Brock and gust fan (1999) offer three conclusions from research on reading texts. The first is that “The mental representation is a construction by the reader that differs from and goes beyond the information is that text itself”. Meaning that people recruit their own background knowledge to draw inferences to comprehend text. SECOND “A good representation is coherent”, implying that structures such as schemata or story grammars’ are used to make the information in a text fit together. A THIRD principle is that a reader’s attention resources are limited to cut down their workload. Readers do not draw every logically possible inference they could form a text.

LANGUAGE PRODUCTION:

Studying language production means studying the process by which we turn non linguistic thoughts into language and then develop an actual plan for the utterance. Language production was not experimental at all but instead observational recording speaker’s errors in production possible to examine errors during production of signed language and during written language production.

    One of the first researchers to use this method was VICTORIA FORMKIN (1923-200).A linguistic scholar who argued that the patterns of errors that speakers make are informative about the underlying process of language production.

     The very different character of word and sound exchange errors were important early evidence in the development of language production model (garrett-1975; levett-1989).In this model production process precede through three distinct levels before arriving at articulation. FIRST at the massage level the speaker articulates the massage to be conveyed. At this point the massage is still nonlinguistic with no words or sentence structured attached to it. The NEXT stage grammatical   encoding contains two different processes. One process involves choosing words and other process involves depending the syntactic structure of the sentences. This process passes through phonological encoding, in which the phonological representation of the utterance of developed.

GRAMMATICAL ENCODING:

              The process of choosing words during language production, an aspect of grammatical encoding .It involves relating semantic information from massage level to individual words.

                  The other aspect of grammatical encoding is the development of a syntactic structure for the spoken or written utterance.

PHONOLOGICAL ENCODING:

    As words are selected and pieces of the sentences structure are planned, these pieces of utterance are sent off the next stage of language production, phonological encoding .here speakers retrieve the pronunciation representation that necessary for articulating the words in the utterance .Indeed, there is a great deal of evidence in language production that choosing a word and retrieving its pronunciation are distinct stages.

SPEECH ERRORS IN PRODUCTION:

   One kind of study of speech production focuses errors, defined as instances in which what the speaker intended to say in quite clear, but the speaker makes some substitution or records the elements.

              In studying one kind of speech error, word substitution GARRETT (1988) found two broad classes: errors that showed meaning relations and errors that showed from relations.

CURRENT RESEARCH IN LANGUAGES

LANGUAGE ON COGNITION (MIRMAN AND MANGNUSON-2008-2011):

>Sematic neighbores have inhibited effects and distant sematic neighbors have facilitated on word cognition.

CHEN AND MIRMAN-2012

   >In a series of stimulations using a simple interactive activation and competition frame work that the complex pattern of facilitative and inhibitory neighbor effects across orthographic, phonological and sematic domains in word recognition and word production arises from simple computational principle: strongly active neighbors have a net inhibitory effect and weakly active neighbor have a net facilitative effect.

ON MEMORY AND COGNITIONAND COGNITIVE CONTROL (MIRMAN, YEE, BLUMSTEIN AND MAGNUSON-2011):

      Real world language use depends on other cognitive functions, particularly memory and cognitive control. Some deficits in spoken word recognition in aphasia may be attributable to deficits in response selection. And those participants with aphasia have particular difficulty categorizing objects based on a single dimension. The dynamics of spoken word recognition are affected by time presume and item reputation.

INTERACTIVITY:

         Current research has shown direct top-down effects of word knowledge on perception of speech sounds, including guiding perceptual learning and delaying recognition of context inappropriate stimuli.

           Top-down effects are also modulated by attention the more you attention to the context, the stronger its effects such effects of contexts are general property of cognition.

RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE THROUGH EXPERIMENTS:

       >A verbal account can be taken to predict just about any observed pattern, especially when the account posits complex interactions between multiple processes.

> No two people have exactly the same cognition system.

>statistical methods of analysis of time series dat(GCA) a large web-based data based to facilitate the use of cognitive neuropsychological methods in the study of language and language cognition many tutorials(MAPPD).

PROCESSING AND REPRESENTATION OF SEMATIC KNOWELEDGE (MIRMAM.ET.AL; OXFORD PRESS CONFERENCS-2012)

       More recently, the psychologists and research’s found that taxonomic and thematic sematic knowledge are functionally and neroanatomatically distinct, with the anterior temporal lobe playing a particularly important role in thematic knowledge.

SUMMURY

    THE language as seen ,the word derived from tongue .later manner researchers conduct experiment on language. The basic foundation of language defines’ language is an communication system, many animals ,birds use language as like  signals,symbols,gestures,thoughts and feelings’.

Ø  AFTER few experiments, language seems as “language is connected to our cognitive system. This process is different from one person to other.

Ø  Language differs with neurological functions of the animal or humans. It is different from person to person like cognition, perception.phonology.attention.

Ø  Also language forms in many ways. Comprehending text passeges, sentences, speech perception, rammer, syntax.phonology, morphology.

REFERENCE:

INTERNET SOURCE

KETHEREN M, CORTESON COLLAGE, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY,3^RD EDITION

EDWARD E SMITH,COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY(MIND AND BRAIN),DHI LEARNING PRIVATE LMTED,NEW DELHI-96