personality,Biography of Carl Rogers

INTRODUCTION

What is personality ?

          There are few words in the English language that have such a faxination for the general public as the term personality. Although the words is used in various senses most of these to social skill or adroitness. An individual’s personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which he or she is able to elicit positive reactions from a variety of persons under different circumstances. It is in this sense that the teacher who refers to a student as presenting a personality problem is probably indicating that his or her social skills are not adequate to maintain satisfactory relations with fellow students and the teacher. The second use considers the personality of the individual to consist of the most outstanding or salient impression that he or she creates in others. A person may thus be said to have an ‘aggressive personality” or a “submissive personality” or a “fearful personality”. In each case the observes selects an attribute or quality that is highly typical of the subject and that is presumably an important part of the overall impression created  in others and the person’s personality is identified by this terms. It is clear that there is an element of evaluation in both usages. Personality as commonly described are good and bad.

          While the diversity in ordinary use of the word personality may seem considerable it is overshadowed by the variety of meaning with which the psychologist has endowed this term. In an exhaustive survey of the literature Allport (1937) extracted almost fifty different definitions that the classified in to a number of broad categories. There we will concern ourselves with only a few of these definitions.

ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY:

          Personality assessment, the measurement of personal characteristics. Assessment is an end result of gathering information intended to advance psychological theory are research and to increase the probability that wise decisions will be made in applied settings (eg in selecting the most promising people from a group of job application). The approach taken by the specialist in personality assessment is based on the assumption that much of the observable variability in behavior from one person to another results from differences in the extent to which individuals possess particular underlying personal characteristics (traits).

          The assessment specialist seeks to define these traits, to measure them objectively, and to relate them to socially significant aspects of behavior.

          A distinctive feature of the scientific approach to personality measurement is the effort. Wherever possible, to describe human characteristics in quantitative terms, flow much of a trait manifests itself in an individual? How many traits are present? Quantitative personality measurement is especially  useful in comparing groups of people as well as individuals. Do groups of people from different cultural and economic backgrounds differ when considered in the light of their particular personality attributes or traits ? How large are the group differences? Over behavior is a reflection of interactions among a wide range of underlying factors including the bodily state of the individual and the effects of that persons part persons experiences. Hence, a narrowly focused approach is inadequate to do justice to the complex human behavior that occurs under the constantly changing set of challenges, pleasures, demands and stresses of everyday life. The sophisticated measurement of human personality inescapably depends on the use of a variety of concepts to provide trait definitions and entails the application of various methods of observation and evaluation personality theorists and researches seek to define and to understand the diversity of human traits the many ways people have of thinking and perceiving and learning and emoting, such nonmaterial human dimensions types and attributes are constructs in this case, inferences drawn from observed behavior widely studied personality constructs include anxiety. Hostility, emotionality, motivation and introversion extroversion. Anxiety, for example, is a concept, or construct inferred in people from what they say, their facial expressions and tier body movements.

          Personality is interactional in two senses. As indicated above, personal characteristics can be thought of as products of interactions among underlying psychological factors. For example, an individual may experience tension because he or she is both shy and desires of social success.

          These products, in turn, interact with the types of situations people confront in their daily lives. A person who is anxious about being evaluated might show debilitated performance in evaluative situations (for example, taking tests) but function will in other situations in which an evaluative emphasis is not present. Personality can be  either on asset or a liability depending on the situation. For example, some people approach evaluative situations with fear and foreboding while others seem to be motivated in a desirable direction by competitive pressures associated with performances.

Personality :

          Personality assessment is conducted through behavioural observations. Paper and pencil tests, and projective techniques. To be use full, such assessments must be constructed using the established criteria of standardization. Reliability and validity. The information can be used in several areas, including clinical work. Vocational counseling, education and research  several areas, including clinical work, vocational counseling, education and research.

Behavioural observation

          Most people use behavioral observation to from impression of others. Such observations are also an important part of clinical assessment by clinical psychologists and other professionals.

Interviews:

          During which subjects behavior are observed may be structured or unstructured. The examines may ask a standardized set of questions (structured interview) or engage in a conversational interchange with the subject (unstructured interview). During the interview the examiner forms an opinion about personality. Characteristics (as is done, for example, also in the nonclinical setting of a job interview).

Paper-and pencil tests

          The many and various paper and pencil tests are used for a variety of purposes. To be useful, such tests must be seliable that is they must yield very close scores each time they are administrated to a particular individual and valid that is, they must measures what they are designed to measure.  The Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMP1) multiphasic, many  phased, because the that simultaneously measures a number of personality dimension is widely used to identify personality problems. The California personality inventory CPI is also used. Extensively, generally with people who do not have personality problems some tests personality as defined by a particular theory. For example, cattell’s 16 PF (Personaltiy Factor) questionnaires assesses the personality trait defined in cattells trait theory.

Projective techniques

          Projective techniques assess personality by  presenting ambiguous stimuli and requiring a subject to respond, projecting his or her personality in to responses.

·        He ambiguous inkblots in the well known Rosochach inkbiot test developed by Herman Rorshach, are perceived differently by different people, and those perception are believed to be related to the subject to suspend, projecting his or her personality into the responses.

The Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) 

          Developed by Hery Muray, consists of a series of ambiguous pictures, which the subject is requested to describe and tell a story about. The test is used to identify a persons emotions, motives and problems.

TOPIC: PERSONALITY THEORIES   

Biography of Carl Rogers

          Carl ramon Rogers was born on January 8, 1902 in Oak park. Illinois. The fourth of six children born to walter and Julia Cushing Rogers, Carl was closes to his mother than to his mother than to his father who during the early years was often away from home working as a civil engineer. Walter and Julia Rogers were both deveretly religious and coil became interested in the bible reading from it and other books even as a preschool child. From his parents he also learned the value of hard work a value that, unlike religion stayed with him through his life. Rogers was an excellent student, but he was also a dreamer who loved adventure books. Although he was from a large family he was a lones and quite unsocial at school. A sensitive by he was easily hurt by the teasing he received from classmates and siblings.

          At the beginning of his high school years. Rogers moves with his famly to a farm just west of Chicago His father was not a farmer but by this time was wonning a successful construction  company. Carls parents  hoped the move to a farm would provide a more wholesome and religious atmosphere for their children. The house was more a mansion than a farm house having eight bedrooms five baths, a tile roof and a tennis currect. In this  environment young Rogers developed a passionate interest in nature. The made the first close friendship outside his family that year also marked the beginning of a more intense interest in religion and a lessening of his desire to become a farmer.

          By this third year at wiscomin. Rogers was deeply involved with religious activities on campus and spent 6 months travelling to China to attend a student religious conference. This trip made a imprevision on Rogers. The interaction with other young religious leaders changed him in to a more liberal thinker and moved him toward independence from the religious views  of his parents these experience with his fellow leaders also gave him more self confidence in social relationships. Unfortunately he returned from the journey with an ulcer.

Although his illness  prevented him from immediately going back to the university. However Rogers paid for is new found freedom and self confidence Robert Dolliver (1995) cited an unpublished segment of an interview in which Rogers said that his parents had nearly disowned him when he broke from their fundamentalist religious beliefs. In that same interview conducted when Rogers was 82. Paul Heppner asked him if he would like to communicate his accomplishments to his parents.

Rogers replied

“I guess I don’t think they would understand now. All I could communicate would be the outward signs of success. That wouldn’t have particular meaning to me it might to then but it wouldn’t to me I really don’t think with their values and view points that they would have any real understanding of what 1m about some of the most fundamental aspects of my point of view and my approach are sort of the reciprocal of what my parents believed”.

In 1926 Rogers entered the union theological seminary in New York with the intension of becoming a minister. While at the seminary. He enrolled in several psychology and education courses  at neighboring Columbia university. The was influenced by the progressive education movement of John Dewey which was then strong at Teachers college.

Rogers decided that he did not wish to express a fixed set of belief but desired more freedom to explore new ideas. Finally in the fall of 1926. He left the New York city and continued to work there while completing his doctoral degree.

Rogers received a Ph.D from Columbia in 1931 after having already moved to Rochester New York to work with the Rochester society for the prevention of cruelty to children. During the early phase of his professional career. Rogers was strongly influenced by the ideas of Otto Rank. Who had been one of Freud’s closest associates before his dismissal from Freud’s inner circle.

In 1944, as part of the war effort. Rogers moved back to New York as director of counseling services for the united services Organization. After 1 year. He took a position at the university of Chicago where established a counseling center and was allowed more freedom to do research on the process and outcome of psychotherapy. The years 1945 to 1957 at Chicago were the most productive and creative of his career. His therapy evolved from one that emphasized methodology, or what in the early. 1940s was called “non directive” Technique to one in which the sole emphasis was on the client therapist relationship. Always the scientist, Rogers, along with his students and colleagues, produced the most original and sophisticated research on the process and effectiveness of psychotherapy published to that data. Disappointed with his job at Wisconsin. Rogers moved to California in 1964 where he joined the western behavioral sciences institute (WBSI) and became increasingly interested in encounter groups.

Rogers resigned from WBSI when he felt it was becoming less democrat and along with about 75 others from the institute formed the center for studies of the person.

The personal life of Carl Rogers was characterized by change and openness to experience. As an adolescent he was extremely shy had no close friends and was “socially incompetent in any but superficial contact”. He did however have an active fantasy life. Which he later believed would have been diagnosed as “schizoid”.

Person – centered theory

          His theory was more fully espoused in client centered therapy and was expressed in even greater deal. Although Roger’s concept of humanity remained basically unchanged  from the early 1940s until his death in 1987. His therapy and theory and theory underwent several changes in name,. during the early years. His approach was known as “non directive” an unfortunate term that umained associated with his name for too log. Later his approach termed that “client centered” “person centered” “student-centered”, group-centered and “person to person”. We use the label client centered in reference to Roger’s therapy and the more inclusive term person centered to refer to the genan personality theory person centered theory is a holistic theory and like other holistic theories it can be outlined and divided only arbitrarily. Each assumption is interrelated with every other concept and cannot be considered apart from the whole of the theory Rogers. However, was able to state many of the assumptions of his theory in an if then frame work. A general example would be. If certain conditions exist then a process will occur. If this process occurs. Then certain outcomes can be expected a more specific example is found in therapy. If the therapist is congruent and communicate unconditional positive regard and accurate empathy to the client. Then therapeutic change will occurs if therapeutic change occurs. Then the client will experience more self acceptance greatest trust of self and so on (we discuss congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathy more fully in the section tilled psychotherapy.

Basic Assumptions:

          What are the basic assumptions of person centered theory? Rogers postulated two broad assumptions the formative tendency and the actualizing tendency.

Formative tendency

          Rogers 1978-1980 believed that there is a tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic to evolve from simpler to more complex forms. For the entire universe a creative process rather than a disintegrative one is in operation Rogers called this process “formative tendency” and pointed to many examples from nature. For instance, complex galaxies of stars form a less well organized more crystals such as show flakes emerge formless rapes, complex organisms develop from single cells.

An interrelated and more pertinent assumption is the Actualizing tendency :

          The tendency with in all human beings to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials. Individuals have within themselves the creative power to solve problem to alter self concept and to become increasingly self directed. The source of psychological growth and maturity reside within the individual and is not found in outside force. Individuals perceives their experiences as reality and they know their reality better than anyone else. They do not need to be directed controlled. Exhorted or manipulated in order to spur them toward actualization.

Actualizing Tendency

          According to Rogers 1959. Infan’s begin to develop a vague concept of self when a portion of their experience becomes personalized and differentiated in awareness as I or me experiences. Once infants establish a rudimentary self structure the tendency to actualize the self begins to evolve. Self actualization is a subsystem of the actualization tendency and is therefore not synonymous with it. The actualization tendency refers to organism experience of the individual that is it refers to the whole person conscious and unconscious. Physiological and cognitive on the other hand self actualization in the tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. When t he organism and the perceived self are in harmony. The two actualization tendencies are nearly identical but when peoples organisms experience are not in harmony with their view of self a discrepancy exists between the actualization tendency and the self actualization tendency.

The self concept

          The self concept includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are  perceived in awareness by the individual. The self concept is not identical with the organismic self. Portions of the organismic self may be beyond  a person awareness or simply not owned by that person. For example, the stomach is pout of the organismic self, but unless it malfunctions and causes concern, it is not likely to be part of one’s self concept similarly, people can disown certain aspects of their selves. Such as experiences of dishonest, when such experiences are not consistent with their self concept. Thus, once people from their self concept they find change and significant learning quit difficult. Experiences that are inconsistent with their self concept usually are either denied or accepted only in distorted form.

The ideal self :

          The second subsystem of the self is the ideal self, defined as one’s view of self as one. Wishes to be. The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually positive that people aspire to possess. Operations both the self concept and the ideal self can be sort technique. A wide gap between the ideal self and the self concept indicates inconsequence and an unhealthy personality. Psychologically healthy individuals perceive little discrepancy between their self concept and what they ideally would like to be.

Awareness:

          With out awareness the self concept and the ideal self would not exist. Rogers defined awareness as the “the symbolic representation of some portion of our experience” the used to term synonymously with both consciousness and symbolization.

Denial of positive experiences:

          Our example of the gifted pianist illustrates that it is not only the negative or derogatory experiences that are distorted or denied to awareness.  Many people have difficulty feedback even when deserved. A student who feels in adequate but yet makes a superior grade might say to herself ‘I know this grade should be evidence of my scholastic ability. But somehow I just don’t feel that way. This class was the eaxist one on campus. The other student just  did’t try my teacher did not know what she was doing” compliments, even those genuinely dispensed seldom  have a positive influence on the self concept of the recipient. Rogers believed that people possess an inherent tendency to move toward actualization. Experiences that are seen as either maintaining or enhancing this movement are positively valued. Those that are negatively valued. The basic needs of all people  are maintenance and enhancement but people also have needs or positive regard and positive self regard.

Need:

The need for maintenance of the organismic self involves the satisfaction of basic needs such as food, air and safety. But it also includes the tendency to resist change and to seek the status gav. The conservative nature of maintenance needs finds expression in people’s desire to protect their current, comfort able self concept, people fight against new ideas, they distort experience that do not quite fit.