RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Meaning of research ;
“ Scientific research is systematic controlled empirical & critical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”
Definition:
Emory: - any organized inquiry designed carried out to provide information for solving a problem.
Encyclopedia: - “research as the systematic verify existing knowledge.”
Nature :
1. Research is a process
2. It is a purpose & organized investigation
3. It is directed towards the salvation to the problem
4. Scientific & systematic search
5. An academic activity
6. It needs by different method
7. Natural science research differ forms social science
8. It`s adopts scientific method
9. It is based up on empirical evidence
10. It demand alternate observation.
Importance of Research : - ( objectives)
1. Extend & development of the knowledge is final aim of research
2. Scientific study of social life
3. Welfare of humanity
4. Classification of facts
5. Academicals importance
6. Development & planning
7. Social control & prediction
TYPES OF RESEARCH: -
1. Descriptive research
2. Analytical research
3. Applied research
4. Quantitative research
5. Qualities research
6. Conceptual research
7. Empirical research
Approaches:
TYPES OF RESEARCH METHOD
1. Expost facts
2. Laboratory experiments
3. Field experiments
4. Field study
5. Survey research
FOUR METHODS OF KNOWING:
Charle peirce;
1. Method of tenacity
2. Method of authority
3. A priori method
4. Method of science
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH:
CAMPBELL:
1. Answer research questions
2. Control of extraneous independent variables
3. Generalizablility
4. Internal & external validity:
a. Internal validity asks the questions
b. A different criterion to satis by
c. Variable representativeness
RESEARCH PROBLEM:
Meaning:
Each & every experiment is related with fining solution for one or the others problems . No doubt a problems is the basis of experiment or research.
“ A problem well put is half solved.”
Definition:
Hurlock: - A problem this is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks what relations exists between or more variables?
Townsend: “ A problem is questioned proposed for solution”
Criteria of Problems:
1. The problem should express relation between two or more variables . E.g.: AàB, A& BàC, CàD
2. Problem should be stated clearly & unambiguously is question form E.g.: Direct question
3. Criterions is after difficult to satisfy
Selecting the problems:
The selecting of one problems out of several existing problems is also essential but it is uphill task. Where experiments has search an area & made a deeper study thus be faces several problems.
The answer of following questions this be select a problems very easily;
1. Is the problem interesting?
2. Is it new?
3. Will it increases knowledge/
4. Is it feasible ?
5. Has any one else a prior claim to it?
Defining the problem:
The proper definition of problem is also essential the definition of problem the practicability of the problem.
ACC TO – Whitney(1956): - ‘To define a problem means to put a fence around it , to separate. It by careful destination from the question found in related situation of need.
E.g.: - SX –RY problemsà this type of problems have very important place in psychology à “the effect of light on reaction”
HYPOTHESIS :
Hypothesis is conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables
Hypothesis are always is declarative sentence form, & they relate, either generally or specifically, variables to variable.
There are two criteria 1. Good hypothesis . 2 Hypothesis statements
Definition: -
Towsend 1953; - it is suggested answer to the problem under investigation.
MC guigam 1969: - a hypothesis is a testable statement of potential relationship between two or more variable.
John Galtung : - all types of research posses three elements à units, variables value.
Hedefined à mathematically a hypothesis is a statement about PS (x1,x3……….xn) hereà p= probality S= set of units x1 –x3 = different variables.
Functions of Hypothesis; - (importance0
1. Hypothesis is working instruments of theory
2. Hypothesis can be tested & shown to be probably
3. Hypothesis is powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge because it equals man to get outside himself.
Actually hypothesis is based two assumptions;
1. Testability
2. Probability
Source of hypothesis;
1. Generally culture 2. Scientific theory 3. Analogy 4. Personal experience.
Criteria of good Hypothesis:
1. Hypothesis should be conceptually clear as define clearly
2. Define should be simple language so every general people can understand
3. Hypothesis must be specific
4. Hypothesis should be related to a reliable
5. Hypothesis should be related to a body of theory
6. Hypothesis must be an adequate answer to the problem
7. Hypothesis must be simplest answer the problem
8. Hypothesis must be verifiable.
Types of hypothesis:
1. Universal hypothesis
2. Exist initial
3. Null
CONCEPTS, CONSTRACTS VARIABLES.
The terms “concept” & “construct” have similar meanings yet there is an important distinction . A concept expresses an abstraction formed by generalization form particulars “ weight” is a concepts: it expresses numerous observations of things that are more or less “heavy” or “light” “Mass energy” & “force” are concepts used by physical scientists they are of course , much more abstract than concepts such as weight , length, & height.
Construct:
A construct is a concept it has the added meaning however of having been deliberately & consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose “intelligence” is a concept.
Variables: -
ACC to kerlinger : - A variables is a symbol to which numeral or values are assigned . for instance x is variable it is a symbol to which we assign numerical values.
DA mato: ‘what is meant by the term variable numeral , any measurable attribute of object things or beings.
Post man & egan: - “ A variable is a characteristic or attribute thar can take on a number of values .
TYPES OF VARIABLES : -
1. Method of removal
2. Method of consistency of conditions
3. Method of screening of balancing
4. Counter balancing method e.g.:- 1+4=5, 2+3=5 is same
5. Method of systematic randomization.
Why control is essential for experiments?
This is natural question.
1. It is possible to study the functional relationship of independent & dependendant variable.
2. It is more adequate to predict the behavior at the basis of studied behavior under controlled conditions
3. Under the control conditions it is more easy to study scientifically the effect of independent variable.
4. If an experiments known the controlled condition of an experiments than he can re –experiment in any face & time.
5. By control it is possible to known scientifically observation.
RESEARCH DESIGN :
Meaning :
Reasons design is plan , structure & strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to resecueable question & to control variance.
IN SIMPLE WORD : - design means ‘ console whole research procedure in very planned manners’
Ackoff: “… design is the decision is the process of making decisions before the situation arises in which the decision has to be carried out . it is a process of deliberate anticipation directed toward bringing an expected situations under control
Need for research design: -
Research design has two objectives
1. To provide answer to research questions
2. To control variance
Features;
1. Purpose of validity, objectively, accurately & economically as possible
2. NEED : - what observation to make , how to make? How to analyze the quantitative representations of the observations
3. Can be stated in force of hypothesis
4. They can be empirically tested
5. There is vide range of possibilities of testing
6. Observation is very important
7. Result depends on how the observation & the inference were made
8. Designs are careful, worked out to yield dependable & valid answers to the research questions epitomized by the hypothesis
Different research designs: -
TYPES OF RESEARCH :
Among the fallacies used by man .me of the most dangerous to science is that known as post HOC ergo proper hoc after this , therefore caused by this
Expost face to research :
Expost face to research is systematic empirical inquiry is which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestation have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable. inference about relations among variables are made , without direct intervention from con committing – variation of independent & dependent variables.
Ø Basic difference between experimental research & ex post face to research
Ø Self – Selection 7 ex post face to research: -
1. Self selection occurs where the members of the group
2. Self selection can be a suitable business
3. The cruse of the matter is that where assignment is not random.
Ø Large Scale Expost face to Research :
1. The authority various personality study
2. Social class influence on learning studies
3. Ideology consensus & operational beliefs studies
Ø SMALL SCALE :Expost face to research:
1. Regional differences is prejudice
2. Freedom & equality study
3. A study of children’s reactions to finger painting
Ø TESTING ALTERNATIVE Or ‘CONTROL’ Hypothesis
Ø Evaluation of ex post face to Research
1. The limitations of expost face to interpretation
2. The value of ex post face to research.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS, FIELD EXPERIMENT & FIELD STUDIES:
Ø Laboratory experiment: Muller studies of the learning of visceral responses
1. The idea of the experiment is simple
2. The increases & decreases of heart rate were statiscally reliable but small
Ø A field experiment : winter at all`s study of the classic personal style
1. School was no exception
2. Intellectualism
3. Self – control
4. Authority that is impersonal strong & good
5. Cynicism & sophistication
FIELD STUDY : -
Newcomb`s Bennington college study types of filed study.
1.Exploratory 2. Hypothesis territory charaersties & criteria of lab –exp & field studies.
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESS OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS : -
1. The laboratory experiment has the inherent virtue of the possibility of relatively complete control.
2. Experiments can ordinarily use random assignment.
3. Closely allied to operational strength is the precision & replicability of laboratory experiment
WEAKENESS :
1. Probably the lack of strength if independent variables
2. Product of the first the artificiality of the experimental research situation.
3. They ask external validity
4. The temptation to interpret the result of laboratory experiments incorrectly is great.
5. One can say is study this problem using field experiments may be I will find the same relation this is an empirical not a speculative matter.
PURPOSE OF THE FIELD EXPERIMENT :
1. They attempt to discover relations under “pupe” & un contaminated conditions
2. Should be mentioned in conjunction with the first purpose.
3. L experiments is to theories & hypotheses to formulated hypothesis to other experiments tested hypothesis.
FIELD EXPERIMENT : -
STRENGTH : -
1. Have values that especially recommend thesis to social psychology
2. The control the field situation
3. An compensation for the blessing of control being mixed the field experiment had two or three unique virtues
4. F.E others appropriateness for studying complex social influences, processes & changes in lifelike settings
5. Field experiment is that they are suited to testing broad hypothesis
6. Flexibility & applicability to wide variety of problems are important characteristics of field experiment
7. Main weakness of FE are practical manipulation
8. There is no theoretical reason.
9. Different nature is to some experiments a weakness & to others strength
10. An important obstacle to good design , un obstacle that seems ordinarily to be overlooked is attitude of the research
11. F E situations like of precision.
FIELD STUDIES :
Strength & weakness of fields studies
1. Strong in relation
2. The relations of F S is obvious
3. Practical problems will always be desirable
4. F S are highly heuristic
5. FS is a scientific weak consign of laboratory & F E
6. Methodological weakness the lack of precision in the measurement of field variables.
7. Feasibility, cost, sampling & time - it is practical problems
SURVEY RESEARCH / SAMPLE SURVEY .
Survey research studies large & small population by selecting studying samples chosen from the distribution & interelatives of sociological & psychological variables.
TYPES OF SURVEYS:
1. Interview & schedules: -
a. Functional information.
b. Subject under investigation is perusal interviews
2. Others types of survey research :
a. Panel feelinique
b. Telephone survey
c. The main questionnaire
THE METHODOLOGY OF SURVEY RESEARCH :
Survey research has contributed much to the methodology of the social science . Its most important contributions, perhaps have been to rigorous sampling procedures , the overall design & the implementation of the design of studies.
a. Survey research use a flow plan
b. Investigation must important job is specify by clarity the problem
c. Take the question
d. Flow plan is the sample & sampling plan
e. Construction of the interview schedule & other measuring instruments to be used.
f. Large part of the flow plan is analytical
g. Tabulation is simply the recording of the numbers type & responses appropriate category.
Survey Research: -
Advantage & Disadvantage
1. Wide scope
2. Survey research information is accurate
Disadvantage:
1. Survey information’s ordinarily does not penetrate very deeply below the surface
2. Survey research is demanding of time & money.
3. Temporarily lift the respondent a out of his own social content
4. Requires a good deal of research knowledge & sophistication.
SAMPLING :
Types of Sampling.
1. Probability Sampling
2. Random sampling
3. Systematic sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Non probability sampling
6. Convenience sampling
7. Quota sampling
8. Dimensional sampling
9. Snowball sampling
INTERVIEWS & SCHEDULES :
The interviews is perhaps the most ubiquitous method of obtaining information from people. It has been & is still used in all kinds of practical situations: the lawyer obtains information from a client , the physician lesion patient .
Interview & schedules are ordinarily questioned direct . this is both a strength & a weakness. It is a strength because a great deal of the information needed in social scientific research can be got from respondents by direct question .
I & S as tools:
Interviews is a Psychological & sociological measuring instrument. Reliability, validity, objectivity
Purpose :
1. It can be an exploratory device to help identity variable & relations to suggest hypothesis
2. It can be the mains instrument of the research
3. The interview can supplement other methods
TOOLS:
1. we must ask the questions
2. Interview as must be fralned
3. Special pains must be taken to eliminate interviewer bias
Disadvantage : -
1. Self administered instrument is low percentage of returns.
2. The same questions frequently has different meaning for different people
3. Closed items.
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